The difficulty with competition law is that so many aspects can influence its overall effectiveness. Sanctions in criminal law or the emergence of private enforcement, for example, may influence leniency policy. In turn, public enforcement, whilst protecting information, could also influence the effectiveness of antitrust damages actions.

The author makes a comparison with the board game “Pisa”. In this game, small figures have to be placed at different levels of the Leaning Tower of Pisa...